Bernard Mandeville
An Enquiry into the Origin of Honour, and the Usefulness of Christianity in War
Pride and shame are manifestations of man’s innate self-liking, or self-esteem, which desires the approval of others. Self esteem is the value men set on themselves, and to reinforce his opinion men seek the approval of their peers. The greater the marks of esteem a person is granted, the more he is honored, the more he is allowed to indulge his high opinion of himself. Conversely, public disapproval is intended to instill shame, self-loathing. Approval and disapproval are not objectively evaluated, but bestowed according to the values of a given group.
Honor has advantages over virtue in that it requires less self-denial. It permits man to indulge his craving for glory, his ego gratification. The indulgence of almost all appetites is consistent with honor. A man of honor may override the law, and demand whatever respect he chooses to enforce from others.
However sincerely they profess a religion, [men] are more likely to be affected by more immediate pains and pleasures. Neither virtue nor religion, not even Christianity, can supply the social benefits of honour.
Christianity is opposed to honor, as it directs men to humility, patience, resignation, and self-denial, rather than self-worship and the attempt to demand that worship from others. Honor demands revenge, Christianity forbids it. Christianity demands forgiveness, honor forbids it.
In the first formings of all societies, there must have been struggles for leadership, and it is natural to assume that strength and courage would have been the primary qualifications of the man who prevailed..
Virtue comes from the Latin for man, and must initially have expressed the concept of manliness, for daring and intrepidity, right or wrong. In its more modern use it has come to mean a principle of courage, justice, and fidelity.
To be a man of honor it is not enough that he is brave in war, but he must likewise be ready to engage in private quarrels, though the laws of God and his nation forbid it. He must bear no affront without resenting it, nor refuse a challenge if it be sent to him in the proper manner by a man of honor.
The fear of the Invisible Cause is as basic to man as his fear of death.
All virtues represent the regulation or suppression of a basic passion. The reason that courage is esteemed over all other passions is that rules the first and most powerful passion of all, the fear of death. Thus Cicero, in his offices, calls modesty, temperance and Justice the softer and easier virtues, as they have less powerful passions to rule.
The word honor is now a verb, then a noun, sometimes taken for the reward of virtue, sometimes for a principle that leads to virtue, and sometimes for virtue itself.
“Most of the Passions are counted to be Weaknesses, and commonly called Frailties; whereas they are the very Powers that govern the whole Machine; and, whether they are perceived or not, determine or rather create the Will that immediately precedes every deliberate action.”
But honor is better suited to the nature of man.
Men are better paid for their adherence to honor, than they are for their adherence to virtue: the first requires less self-denial; and the rewards they receive for that little are not imaginary but real and palpable.
When a man is overwhelm’d with shame, he observes a sinking of the spirits; the heart feels cold and condensed, and the blood flies from it to the circumference of the body; the face glows; the neck and part of the breast partake of the fire: he is heavy as lead; the head is hung down; and the eyes though a Mist of Confusion are fixed on the ground; No injuries can move him; he is weary of his being, and heartily wishes he could make himself invisible: But when, gratifying his Vanity, he exults in his Pride, he discovers quite contrary Symptoms; his spirits swell and fan the Arterial Blood; a more than ordinary warmth strengthens and dilates the Heart; the extremities are cool; he feels light to himself, and imagines he could tread on air;his head is held up; his eyes are roll’d about with Sprightliness; he rejoices at his being; is prone to Anger, and would be glad that all the world could take notice of him.”
A virtuous man expects no acknowledgments from others, and if they won’t believe him to be virtuous, his business is not to force them to it; but a man of honor has the liberty openly to proclaim himself to be such, and call to an account everybody who dares to doubt of it; nay, such is the inestimable value he sets upon himself, that he often endeavors to punish with death the most insignificant trespass that’s committed against him, the least word, look, or motion, if he can find but any far-fetched reason to suspect a design in it to under-value him; and of this nobody is permitted to be a judge but himself. The enjoyments that arise from being virtuous are of that nicety, that every ordinary capacity cannot relish them; as, without doubt, there is a noble pleasure in forgiving of injuries, to speculative men that have refined notions of virtue, but it is more natural to resent them, and in revenging one’s self, there is a pleasure which the meanest understanding is capable of tasting. It is manifest, then, that there are allurements in the principle of honor, to draw in men of the lowest capacity, and even the vicious, which virtue has not.
The Church of Rome,...knowing that no power or authority can be established or long maintained upon earth without real strength and force of arms, she very early coaxed the soldiery, and made all men of valour her tools by three maxims, that...will never fail of engaging mankind in her favor[:] indulging some in their vices, humoring others in their folly, and flattering the pride of all.The various orders of knighthood were so many bulwarks to defend the temporals of the Church, as well against the encroachments of her friends as the invasions of her enemies....Pains were taken by the grand architects of the church to reconcile, in outward show, the principle of honor with that of the Christian religion, and make men stupidly believe that the height of pride is not inconsistent with the greatest humility.
When they are enter upon action, to besiege a large town, or ravage a rich country, it would be very impertinent to talk to them of Christian virtues: doing unto others as they would have done to themselves, loving their enemies, and extending their charity to all mankind. When the foe is at hand,...then the mask is flung off; not a word of the gospel, nor of meekness or humility, and all thoughts of Christianity are laid aside entirely. The men are praised and buoyed up in the high value they have for themselves, their officers call them gentlemen and fellow soldiers, generals pull off their hats to them, and no artifice is neglected that can flatter their pride, or inspire them with the love of glory.
Gallantry with women is no discredit to the men, anymore than want of courage is a reproach to the ladies.
[not quote] Most of those who gained honor did so solely by their courage and intrepidity, because those are the only parts of our character which it is always in our power to demonstrate.
The best friend a king has may [lack] an opportunity to show his loyalty; so a man may be just and chaste, and yet not be able to convince the world that he is so; but he may pick a quarrel and show that he dares to fight when he pleases, especially if he converses with men of the sword. Where the principle of honor was in high esteem, vanity and impatience must have always prompted the most proud and forward to seek after opportunities of [distinguishing] themselves, in order to be styled men of honor.
When we see a vain, worldly man [conquer] his known and well established pride, we ...suspect it to be a sacrifice he makes to his fear; not the fear of God, or punishment in another world, but the fear of death, the strongest passion in our nature, the fear that his adversary, the man who has affronted him, will kill him.
A man may believe the torments of hell, and stand in great dread of them, ...but he does not always think of them. But in worshiping honor, a man adores himself, which is ever dear to him, never absent, never out of sight. A man is easily induced to reverence what he loves so entirely.
The most effectual method to breed men of honor is to inspire them with lofty and romantic sentiments concerning the excellency of their nature, and the superlative merit there is in being a man of honor. The higher you can raise a man’s pride, the more refined you may render his notions of honor.
